The Israelites were commanded (Num 15:37, 38)
“to make tassels (KJV ‘fringes’) on the corners of their garments
throughout their generations, and to put upon the tassel of each corner a
cord of blue.” A similar ordinance is found in Deuteronomy 22:12,
“You shall make yourself tassels (KJV ‘fringes’) on the four corners of
your cloak with which you cover yourself.” The purpose of the tassels
was to remind the Israelites of the commandments of the Lord, and not to
depart from His will.
The Tucson artifacts, sometimes called the Tucson Lead Crosses, Tucson Crosses, Silverbell Road artifacts, or Silverbell artifacts, were thirty-one lead objects that Charles E. Manier and his family found in 1924 near Picture Rocks, Arizona
which were initially thought by some to be created by early
Mediterranean civilizations that had crossed the Atlantic in the first
century, but were later determined to be a hoax.
The find consisted of thirty-one lead objects, including crosses, swords, and religious/ceremonial paraphernalia, most of which bore Hebrew or Latin
engraved inscriptions, pictures of temples, leaders' portraits, angels,
and a dinosaur (inscribed on the lead blade of a sword). One contained
the phrase "Calalus, the unknown land", which was used by believers as
the name of the settlement. The objects also have Roman numerals ranging
from 790 to 900 inscribed on them, which were sometimes interpreted to
represent the date of their creation. The site contains no other
artifacts, no pottery sherds, no broken glass, no human or animal remains, and no sign of hearths or housing.
On September 13, 1924 Charles Manier and his father stopped to examine some old lime kilns while driving northwest of Tucson on Silverbell Road.
Manier saw an object protruding about 2 inches (5.1 cm) from the soil.
He dug it out, revealing that the object was a 20 inches (51 cm)-long
lead cross which weighed 64 pounds (29 kg). Between 1924 and 1930
additional objects were extracted from the caliche, a layer of soil in which the soil particles have been cemented together by lime.
Caliche often takes a long period of time to form, but it can be made
and placed around an article in a short period of time, according to a
report written by James Quinlan, a retired Tucson geologist who had
worked for the U.S. Geological Survey.
Quinlan also concluded that it would be easy to bury articles in the
soft, silt material, and associated caliche in the lime kiln where the
objects were found at the margin of prior trenches.
The objects were believed, by their discoverer and main supporters, to
be of a Roman Judeo-Christian colony existing in what is now known as
Arizona between 790–900 AD. No other find has been formally established
as placing any Roman colony in the area, nor anywhere else in North
America.
In November 1924, Manier brought his friend Thomas Bent to the
site and Bent was quickly convinced of the authenticity of the
discovery. Upon finding the land was not owned, he immediately set up
residence there, in order to homestead the property. Bent felt there was money to be made in further excavating the site.
From the forthcoming publication Merchant Adventurer Kings of Rhoda, we present a chronology of world events as they relate to the Tucson Artifacts.
According to a lozenge-shaped “callout” in the nehushtan in the form
of a Celtic cross with a rattlesnake that constitutes Artifact 18,
considered the finest of the productions in a cast lead series of
unusual artifacts excavated in Tucson in the 1920s, the colonists sailed
to Rome in 775, whence they proceeded to Calalus, in Terra Incognita,
when Theodore ruled over the peoples. We identify the colonists with
Romani expeditionary forces of Brittany and Frankish Gaul, led by Jews
like the Breton Oliver, who signed the inscribed crosses that record the
annals of a Carolingian colony in Toltec Mexico, now Arizona. The
colony lasted from 890 to 900, when it was extinguished by a cataclysm
known to archeologists as the Great Flood of 899. At the same time, the
Carolingians faded from history and the Tang Dynasty ended, disrupting
long-distance trade in the East.
We identify Theodore with the historical figure Machir, exilarch and
nasi, and founder of the Jewish princedom documented by Zuckerman
(1972). The dates 765-900 of this exotic and unique episode in Western
civilization match well those of the Tucson Artifacts.
Extraordinary events were taking place in the year 775. Baghdad was the
capital of the world, which formed, for the first time in history, an
international ecumene, a unified trading zone. At this exact moment, a
group of Gallo-Roman traders and Frankish expeditionary forces including
Jews from Brittany, Wales, and Gaul called Rhadanites set sail from
Rome’s port on the Tiber to voyage to Egypt, Palestine, and Persia,
seeking the fabled riches of Terra Incognita beyond India and China.
Jews everywhere looked for the appearance of the Messiah: It was seven
hundred years after the fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish
state under the Romans. Now the Holy Land was a protectorate under
Charlemagne, the son of Pepin. Commerce was booming. Knowledge and
science were about to enter upon a renaissance. The Papal States sprang
into existence, to last another thousand years.
So here is the central portion of a larger chronology intended to
help people understand and place the Tucson Artifacts within world
developments, including Breton and Frankish history, seafaring and
commerce, the rise of Islam and the golden age of Judaism after the year
800.
According to the Book of Mormon, King Benjamin, son of King Mosiah the first, was the second Nephite king to rule over Zarahemla. An account of his life and teachings are recorded in both the Words of Mormon and the Book of Mosiah.
He was considered a king and a prophet, and was the spiritual and
governmental leader of his people. He is believed to have been born
roughly 190 BC.
According to the beliefs of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Zarahemla (/ˌzærəˈhɛmlə/) refers to a large city in the ancient Americas which is described in the Book of Mormon. It also is used to refer to a large political division, and a minor character in the book. Archaeologists and historians have not been able to archaeologically verify a location for the city. (See Archaeology and the Book of Mormon for more detail about the archaeological debate between Mormons and mainstream archaeologists).
According to the Book of Mormon, the NephiteMosiah
and his followers "discovered that the people of Zarahemla came out
from Jerusalem at the time that Zedekiah king of Judah, was carried away
captive into Babylon" (about 587 B.C.) The Book of Mormon relates that the surviving seed of Zedekiah "journeyed in the wilderness, and were brought by the hand of the Lord across the great waters" to the Western Hemisphere.
The book of Omni in the Book of Mormon tells how Zarahemla and his
people came to settle the land of Zarahemla in the New World. Mosiah and
his refugee people presumably united with the people of Zarahemla
sometime between 279 and 130 B.C. "Mosiah was appointed to be their
king." Mosiah thereafter presided in the land of Zarahemla over a people called collectively "the Nephites". The Land of Zarahemla was the Nephite capital for many years.
Notable Book of Mormon descendants of the leader Zarahemla include Ammon the venturer and Coriantumr the dissenter. Ammon led a quest in search of a colony that had left the land of Zarahemla in order to resettle a city named Lehi-Nephi. The dissenter Coriantumr led the Lamanites in battle against the Nephites in the first century B.C.
At some point before Mosiah discovered Zarahemla, the people of Zarahemla had discovered Coriantumr
(not to be confused with the later Nephite dissenter of the same name).
According to the Book of Mormon, Coriantumr was the last of a destroyed
nation called the Jaredites. Coriantumr stayed with the people of Zarahemla "for the space of nine moons" (Omni 1:21) before dying and being buried by them (Ether 13:21).
Benjamin succeeded his father Mosiah as the second Nephite king of Zarahemla. King Benjamin was victorious in driving Lamanites enemies from the Zarahemla region.
At the time of the crucifixion of Christ,
the Book of Mormon records that "there were exceedingly sharp
lightnings, such as never had been known in all the land. And the city
of Zarahemla did take fire."
"And it came to pass that there was a voice heard among all the
inhabitants of the earth ... 'because of their iniquity and abominations
... that great city Zarahemla have I burned with fire, and the
inhabitants thereof ... I am Jesus Christ, the Son of God.'" (3 Nephi,
9: 1, 2, 3, 15.) The Book of Mormon indicates that "the great city of
Zarahemla" was rebuilt sometime in the first century A.D. As his doomed nation retreated northward from their enemies, the 4th century prophet and historian Mormon recorded that Nephite "towns, and villages, and cities were burned with fire."
The Book of Mormon does not indicate whether the city of Zarahemla
survived to be occupied by Lamanites after the destruction of the
Nephite nation.
The Book of Mormon (mainly its Book of Ether) describes the Jaredites as the descendants of Jared and his brother, who lived at the time of the Tower of Babel.
According to the Book of Mormon, they fled across the ocean on unique
barges and established an ancient civilization in America. The Book of
Ether's mention of "elephants" and "narrow neck of land" has led some
to conclude that the civilization likely spanned from the Midwest to the Eastern United States such as New York, where fossils of ancient mammoths have not been discovered in abundance, and many Native American accounts describe Niagara
as the narrow strip of land that literally translates to "the neck".
Others argue for a location still north of but nearer to the "necks of
land" in Central America or Mexico.
However, the existence of any the four groups is not accepted by mainstream archaeology.
According to the Book of Mormon, the Jaredites are the descendants of Jared, his brother, their immediate family, and their friends. (Joseph Smith later identified the brother of Jared as Mahonri Moriancumer.) At the time of the Tower of Babel,
when the tongues of all nations were confounded, the Lord acceded to
the desires of Jared, and his people's language was not confounded. The
people were also granted a land of promise.
The Lord guided the people through the wilderness and were
eventually directed to cross the sea in "barges." The vessels were
sealed and watertight and able to be swamped by waves without sinking. Air was obtained from outside the vessels, as needed. They also brought with them animals and food. The recorded length of the miraculous trip was 344 days.
Ether is the last in the royal line that began with one of the sons of Jared. From the time of the first king
to the destruction of the Jaredites, there were only occasional periods
of peace and prosperity. The times of peace were interrupted by
intrigue over the throne, civil war, and the accession of wicked kings.
The history of the Jaredites confirmed the fears of Jared and his
brother that a monarchy would lead to evil.
The Book of Mormon claims that the Jaredites grew to become a
civilization that exceeded two million people just before its
destruction. They finally destroyed themselves about the time Lehi and the other refugees from Jerusalem arrived in America. A prophecy of Ether was fulfilled: the last Jaredite king, Coriantumr,
lived to see both the total destruction of his entire house, the
scattering of the remaining Jaredites, and the arrival of another people
to inherit the land.
The title refers to Ether, a Jaredite prophet who lived at the end of the time period covered by the book, believed to be circa 2600 or 2100 BC through 600 BC or later, at least 1500 but possibly as long as 2500 years.
Jared and his people were among the many scattered peoples from the destruction of the Tower of Babel. The brother of Jared is described as "a large and mighty man ... highly favored of the Lord",
and seems to have been the spiritual leader of the group. He was given a
vision of the history of the world, and inscribed prophecies, which
were "sealed up" until the Lord decides to reveal them. The Lord told
the brother of Jared to build unpowered submarines, termed "barges" or
"vessels", to cross the ocean to the promised land. The barges could
circulate fresh air because of openings in the top and bottom of the
vessel.
The hole in the top could be "stopped up" when the waves crashed over
the vessel to prevent scuttling. The hole in the bottom is assumed to
have been constructed as a sort of "moon pool" with the lip above the
waterline so it would not flood the vessel. This would also allow wave
action and the buoying of the vessel to pump fresh air in and out of the
vessel when the upper opening was uncapped.
Because the vessels could not sustain fire or windows for light,
the brother of Jared went to a mountain and prayed for help. God touched
several molten stones and made them shine. Because of the brother of
Jared's great faith, he saw the finger of God. He then saw and spoke
with Jehova. The people launched the vessels and traveled through great
storms. After 344 days, they arrived at the Americas. Jared and his brother led the people to successfully establish a righteous nation.
Concealed within the desolate, rocky landscape of the Makran coastline
of Southern Balochistan, Pakistan, is an architectural gem that has gone
unnoticed and unexplored for centuries. The ‘Balochistan Sphinx’, as it
is popularly called, came into the public eye only after the Makran
Coastal Highway opened in 2004, linking Karachi with the port town of
Gwadar on the Makran coast.1 A
four-hour, 240-kilometer-long drive through meandering mountain passes
and arid valleys from Karachi brings travellers to Hingol National Park,
where the Balochistan Sphinx is located.
The political aspect of the legend again came forward in the
thirteenth century. In November 1219, Damietta was conquered by the crusaders. In the spring of 1221 the report was circulated among the victors that in the East, King David, either the son or nephew of the Presbyter, had placed himself at the head of three powerful armies, and was moving upon the Mohammedan countries. An Arabic prophecy foretold that when Easter fell on 3 April, the religion of Mohammed would be abolished. This occurred in 1222, and many expected that King David and his host would offer their support to the long-awaiting army of Frederick II. The enthusiasm that this announcement created in the camp at Damietta led to a premature outbreak of the Franks against Cairo, and the defeat of the army. The historical germ is easily discovered. King David
is no other than the Mongolian conqueror Jenghiz Khan, who at this time
with three legions pushed forward towards the West, and in a most
sanguinary battle annihilated the power of Islam in Central Asia. He and many of his successors were favourable to the Christians, and averse to the Mohammedans; the Mongol Kingdom also surpassed all Asiatic principalities by its display; but the name of David given to the Eastern conqueror still remains unexplained.
Third stage
The horrible slaughter committed by the Mongols soon proved that they were no piouspilgrims bound for the Holy Sepulchre, still less were they Christians.
After a short time the legend assumed another form. It said that the
Mongolians were the wild hordes mentioned in the Presbyter's letter to
Manuel. They had risen up against their own ruler, King David, murdering both him and his father. The "Speculum historiale" of Vincent of Beauvais
says: "In the year of our Lord 1202, after murdering their ruler
[David] the Tatars set about destroying the people". Certain historical
facts form the basis of this remarkable report. Bar Hebraeus mentions that in 1006 the Mongolian tribe of the Keriats in Upper Asia had become Christians (Nestorians). According to the account of Rubruquis, the Franciscan,
these Keriats were related to the Naymans, another Mongolian shepherd
tribe, and paid tribute to their ruler Coirchan; they also were Nestorian Christians,
and in that vicinity were considered the countrymen of Prester John.
The prince of the Keriats, Unc-Khan, was in 1202 completely subject to
the superior power of Jenghiz Khan, who meanwhile was on the friendliest
terms with his family, thus giving the Keriats a certain amount of independence. Marco Polo speaks of Unc-Khan as "the great prince who is called Prester John, the whole world speaking of his great power".
Móricz wrote a pamphlet entitled El Origen Americano de Pueblos Europeos
("The American origin of European peoples"), which consists of a series
of pseudohistorical claims regarding Eurasia, the Americas, and pre-Columbian contact. These include: that the Sumerians, Hungarians, and Iberians originally came from the Americas; that the sparsely attested Puruhá language was Hungarian; that the Basques belong to the same "racialand linguistic branch as the Huns"; and that various indigenous peoples of the Americans are Huns.
In the pamphlet, Móricz also claims that the Tsafiki language of the indigenous Tsáchila of Santo Domingo de los Colorados and the Cha'palaa language of the Cayapas (or Chachi people) are actually "old Hungarian."
The 1421 theory claims that the Chinese (specifically, the fleet of the admiral Zheng He) reached the Americas in 1421 — before Christopher Columbus, and that various Native American peoples descend from the Chinese and speak Chinese. Historians generally regard the 1421 theory as pseudohistory based on nothing more than speculations, assertions, and sloppy research.
One claim by supporters of the 1421 theory is that the Apache speak Chinese. The "evidence" for this claim is the following bit of hearsay from the 1918 book History of Arizona by Thomas Edwin Farish:
“”The
Tartar Chinese speak the dialect of the Apaches. The Apaches bear a
striking resemblance to the Tartar. About the year 1885, W. [William] B.
Horton,
who had served as County Superintendent of Schools, at Tucson, was
appointed Post Trader at Camp Apache, and went to San Francisco to
purchase his stock, where he hired a Chinese cook. His kitchen adjoined
his sleeping apartment, and one evening while in his room he heard in
the kitchen some Indians talking. Wondering what they were doing there
at that hour of the night, he opened the door and found his cook
conversing with an Apache. He asked his cook where he had acquired the
Indian language. The cook said: 'He speak all same me. I Tartar Chinese;
he speak same me, little different, not much.' At Williams, in Navajo
County, is another Tartar Chinaman, Gee Jim, who converses freely with
the Apaches in his native language. From these facts it would seem that
the Apache is of Tartar origin.
From the fact that the Apache language was practically the same as that
of the Tartar Chinese, color is given to the theory advanced by Bancroft
in his “Native Races,” Volume 5, p. 33, et seq., that Western America
was “originally peopled by the Chinese, or, at least, that the greater
part of the new world civilization may be attributed to these people.”
Sherwin's methodology consists of taking an Algonquian word (or
multiple cognates of the same word in different Algonquian languages)
and finding an Old Norse or Norwegian word or group of words that
resembles it, with the latter often having only a tenuous semantic
connection to the former. Just look at the entry for the word skudakumootc:
SKUDAKUMOOTC,1 a ghost, apparition (Rand-Clark)
skodda (Norse dialect), noun, fog, heavy haze that covers the earth and obstructs the view
koma (kem, kom, etc.), verb, to come, arrive; koma uut, to get out, come out
1 skodda koma uut, "comes out of the haze”
Welsh Indians are a supposed tribe of Native Americans of Welsh
origin. Several Native American groups have been identified as having
Welsh origins, most prominently the Mandans of North Dakota. Welsh
Indians are usually claimed to have descended from a colony founded by
prince Madoc in 1170. Apart from tall tales, no evidence has ever been
found for their existence.
According to legend, Madoc was the son of Owain Gwynedd (himself
an actual historical figure), a great but belligerent Welsh king. After
Owain's death Madoc's brothers fell out with each other and continuously
warred for their father's succession. Weary of the bloodshed, Madoc
decided to leave Wales and sailed west, where he reached an unknown
land. He left 120 men as a colony and returned to Wales. There he
gathered ten ships full of men, women and livestock and returned to his
colony. Since then Madoc was never heard of again.
Apparently Madoc was a somewhat well-known figure in Medieval
poetry, but most of the references to him surviving today date from
after Christopher Columbus, though our earliest reference pre-dates Columbus by at least a decade.[notes 1]
A more complete surviving record of Madoc's adventures dates from a
history of Wales published by Humphrey Llwyd in 1559, supposedly based
on ancient Welsh sources. In the 16th and 17th century Madoc's story was
occasionally used by the British crown as a legitimation of its
colonization of North America. Though the pope had awarded most of the Americas to Spain (apart from Brazil which went to Portugal) in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas,
the British claimed the Spanish claim was illegitimate because Madoc
rather than Columbus was the real discoverer of the Americas. Locations
identified as the site of Madoc's colony include most of the North
American East Coast, as well as the Gulf coast of Alabama, Mexico's Yucatán peninsula and the Bahamas.
From the 17th century onward an encounter with Welsh Indians
became a common theme in stories about the Anglo-American conquest of
North America. Most such stories follow a simple formula: a Welshman
sets out to the hinterland and is taken prisoner by Native Americans.
With his execution imminent, he says something (usually a prayer)
in Welsh. His captors recognize his words as their own language and
release him. Needless to say, any follow-up expeditions have failed to
encounter any Welsh Indians.
Other "evidence" involves archaeological finds from the 1700s, including memorials written in Welsh or Caucasian remains wearing European armor. However, any alleged evidence that may have existed is no longer to be found. Huh.
The first mention of Welsh Indians dates from 1568; by the early
20th century it had become clear that no such people existed.
Embarrassingly, in 1953 the Daughters of the American Revolution erected
a plaque in Mobile Bay, Alabama commemorating Madoc's discovery and
colonization of that site in 1170. The plaque has since been removed.
Metaxism (Greek: Μεταξισμός) is a totalitariannationalist ideology associated with Greek dictator Ioannis Metaxas.[1] It called for the regeneration of the Greek nation and the establishment of a modern, culturally homogenous Greece. Metaxism disparaged liberalism,
and held individual interests to be subordinate to those of the nation,
seeking to mobilize the Greek people as a disciplined mass in service
to the creation of a "new Greece."
Metaxas declared that his 4th of August Regime (1936–1941) represented a "Third Greek Civilization" which was committed to the creation of a culturally purified Greek nation based upon the militarist societies of ancient Macedonia and Sparta, which he held to constitute the "First Greek Civilization"; and the Orthodox Christian ethic of the Byzantine Empire, which he considered to represent the "Second Greek Civilization." The Metaxas regime asserted that true Greeks were ethnically Greek and Orthodox Christian, intending to deliberately exclude Albanians, Slavs, and Turks residing in Greece from Greek citizenship.
High priest (Hebrew: כהן גדול kohen gadol; with definite article הַכֹּהֵן הַגָּדוֹל ha'kohen ha'gadol, the high priest; Aramaickahana rabba)[1] was the title of the chief religious official of Judaism from the early post-Exilic times until the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. Previously, in the Israelite religion including the time of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah,
other terms were used to designate the leading priests; however, as
long as a king was in place, the supreme ecclesiastical authority lay
with him.[1]
The official introduction of the term "high priest" went hand in hand
with a greatly enhanced ritual and political significance bestowed upon
the chief priest in the post-Exilic period, certainly from 411 BCE
onward, after the religious transformations brought about by the
Babylonian captivity and due to the lack of a Jewish king and kingdom.
The high priests belonged to the Jewish priestly families that trace their paternal line back to Aaron, the first high priest of Israel in the Hebrew Bible and elder brother of Moses, through Zadok, a leading priest at the time of David and Solomon. This tradition came to an end in the 2nd century BCE during the rule of the Hasmoneans, when the position was occupied by other priestly families unrelated to Zadok.
The succession was to be through one of his sons, and was to remain in his own family (Leviticus 6:15).[4] If he had no son, the office devolved upon the brother next of age: such appears to have been the practise in the Hasmonean period. In the time of Eli, however (1 Samuel 2:23), the office passed to the collateral branch of Ithamar (see Eleazar). But King Solomon is reported to have deposed the high priest Abiathar, and to have appointed Zadok, a descendant of Eleazar, in his stead (1 Kings 2:35; 1 Chronicles 24:2–3). After the Exile,
the succession seems to have been, at first, in a direct line from
father to son; but later the civil authorities arrogated to themselves
the right of appointment.
Comments
The Tucson artifacts, sometimes called the Tucson Lead Crosses, Tucson Crosses, Silverbell Road artifacts, or Silverbell artifacts, were thirty-one lead objects that Charles E. Manier and his family found in 1924 near Picture Rocks, Arizona which were initially thought by some to be created by early Mediterranean civilizations that had crossed the Atlantic in the first century, but were later determined to be a hoax.
The find consisted of thirty-one lead objects, including crosses, swords, and religious/ceremonial paraphernalia, most of which bore Hebrew or Latin engraved inscriptions, pictures of temples, leaders' portraits, angels, and a dinosaur (inscribed on the lead blade of a sword). One contained the phrase "Calalus, the unknown land", which was used by believers as the name of the settlement. The objects also have Roman numerals ranging from 790 to 900 inscribed on them, which were sometimes interpreted to represent the date of their creation. The site contains no other artifacts, no pottery sherds, no broken glass, no human or animal remains, and no sign of hearths or housing.On September 13, 1924 Charles Manier and his father stopped to examine some old lime kilns while driving northwest of Tucson on Silverbell Road. Manier saw an object protruding about 2 inches (5.1 cm) from the soil. He dug it out, revealing that the object was a 20 inches (51 cm)-long lead cross which weighed 64 pounds (29 kg). Between 1924 and 1930 additional objects were extracted from the caliche, a layer of soil in which the soil particles have been cemented together by lime. Caliche often takes a long period of time to form, but it can be made and placed around an article in a short period of time, according to a report written by James Quinlan, a retired Tucson geologist who had worked for the U.S. Geological Survey. Quinlan also concluded that it would be easy to bury articles in the soft, silt material, and associated caliche in the lime kiln where the objects were found at the margin of prior trenches. The objects were believed, by their discoverer and main supporters, to be of a Roman Judeo-Christian colony existing in what is now known as Arizona between 790–900 AD. No other find has been formally established as placing any Roman colony in the area, nor anywhere else in North America.
In November 1924, Manier brought his friend Thomas Bent to the site and Bent was quickly convinced of the authenticity of the discovery. Upon finding the land was not owned, he immediately set up residence there, in order to homestead the property. Bent felt there was money to be made in further excavating the site.From the forthcoming publication Merchant Adventurer Kings of Rhoda, we present a chronology of world events as they relate to the Tucson Artifacts.
According to a lozenge-shaped “callout” in the nehushtan in the form of a Celtic cross with a rattlesnake that constitutes Artifact 18, considered the finest of the productions in a cast lead series of unusual artifacts excavated in Tucson in the 1920s, the colonists sailed to Rome in 775, whence they proceeded to Calalus, in Terra Incognita, when Theodore ruled over the peoples. We identify the colonists with Romani expeditionary forces of Brittany and Frankish Gaul, led by Jews like the Breton Oliver, who signed the inscribed crosses that record the annals of a Carolingian colony in Toltec Mexico, now Arizona. The colony lasted from 890 to 900, when it was extinguished by a cataclysm known to archeologists as the Great Flood of 899. At the same time, the Carolingians faded from history and the Tang Dynasty ended, disrupting long-distance trade in the East.
We identify Theodore with the historical figure Machir, exilarch and nasi, and founder of the Jewish princedom documented by Zuckerman (1972). The dates 765-900 of this exotic and unique episode in Western civilization match well those of the Tucson Artifacts.
Extraordinary events were taking place in the year 775. Baghdad was the capital of the world, which formed, for the first time in history, an international ecumene, a unified trading zone. At this exact moment, a group of Gallo-Roman traders and Frankish expeditionary forces including Jews from Brittany, Wales, and Gaul called Rhadanites set sail from Rome’s port on the Tiber to voyage to Egypt, Palestine, and Persia, seeking the fabled riches of Terra Incognita beyond India and China. Jews everywhere looked for the appearance of the Messiah: It was seven hundred years after the fall of Jerusalem and destruction of the Jewish state under the Romans. Now the Holy Land was a protectorate under Charlemagne, the son of Pepin. Commerce was booming. Knowledge and science were about to enter upon a renaissance. The Papal States sprang into existence, to last another thousand years.
So here is the central portion of a larger chronology intended to help people understand and place the Tucson Artifacts within world developments, including Breton and Frankish history, seafaring and commerce, the rise of Islam and the golden age of Judaism after the year 800.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_incognita#/media/File:Map_North_America_1566.jpg
According to the Book of Mormon, the Nephite Mosiah and his followers "discovered that the people of Zarahemla came out from Jerusalem at the time that Zedekiah king of Judah, was carried away captive into Babylon" (about 587 B.C.) The Book of Mormon relates that the surviving seed of Zedekiah "journeyed in the wilderness, and were brought by the hand of the Lord across the great waters" to the Western Hemisphere. The book of Omni in the Book of Mormon tells how Zarahemla and his people came to settle the land of Zarahemla in the New World. Mosiah and his refugee people presumably united with the people of Zarahemla sometime between 279 and 130 B.C. "Mosiah was appointed to be their king." Mosiah thereafter presided in the land of Zarahemla over a people called collectively "the Nephites". The Land of Zarahemla was the Nephite capital for many years.
Notable Book of Mormon descendants of the leader Zarahemla include Ammon the venturer and Coriantumr the dissenter. Ammon led a quest in search of a colony that had left the land of Zarahemla in order to resettle a city named Lehi-Nephi. The dissenter Coriantumr led the Lamanites in battle against the Nephites in the first century B.C.
At some point before Mosiah discovered Zarahemla, the people of Zarahemla had discovered Coriantumr (not to be confused with the later Nephite dissenter of the same name). According to the Book of Mormon, Coriantumr was the last of a destroyed nation called the Jaredites. Coriantumr stayed with the people of Zarahemla "for the space of nine moons" (Omni 1:21) before dying and being buried by them (Ether 13:21).
Benjamin succeeded his father Mosiah as the second Nephite king of Zarahemla. King Benjamin was victorious in driving Lamanites enemies from the Zarahemla region.
At the time of the crucifixion of Christ, the Book of Mormon records that "there were exceedingly sharp lightnings, such as never had been known in all the land. And the city of Zarahemla did take fire." "And it came to pass that there was a voice heard among all the inhabitants of the earth ... 'because of their iniquity and abominations ... that great city Zarahemla have I burned with fire, and the inhabitants thereof ... I am Jesus Christ, the Son of God.'" (3 Nephi, 9: 1, 2, 3, 15.) The Book of Mormon indicates that "the great city of Zarahemla" was rebuilt sometime in the first century A.D. As his doomed nation retreated northward from their enemies, the 4th century prophet and historian Mormon recorded that Nephite "towns, and villages, and cities were burned with fire." The Book of Mormon does not indicate whether the city of Zarahemla survived to be occupied by Lamanites after the destruction of the Nephite nation.
The Jaredites (/ˈdʒærədaɪt/) are one of four peoples (along with the Nephites, Lamanites, and Mulekites) that the Latter-day Saints believe settled in ancient America.
The Book of Mormon (mainly its Book of Ether) describes the Jaredites as the descendants of Jared and his brother, who lived at the time of the Tower of Babel. According to the Book of Mormon, they fled across the ocean on unique barges and established an ancient civilization in America. The Book of Ether's mention of "elephants" and "narrow neck of land" has led some to conclude that the civilization likely spanned from the Midwest to the Eastern United States such as New York, where fossils of ancient mammoths have not been discovered in abundance, and many Native American accounts describe Niagara as the narrow strip of land that literally translates to "the neck". Others argue for a location still north of but nearer to the "necks of land" in Central America or Mexico.
According to the Book of Mormon, the Jaredites are the descendants of Jared, his brother, their immediate family, and their friends. (Joseph Smith later identified the brother of Jared as Mahonri Moriancumer.) At the time of the Tower of Babel, when the tongues of all nations were confounded, the Lord acceded to the desires of Jared, and his people's language was not confounded. The people were also granted a land of promise.
The Lord guided the people through the wilderness and were eventually directed to cross the sea in "barges." The vessels were sealed and watertight and able to be swamped by waves without sinking. Air was obtained from outside the vessels, as needed. They also brought with them animals and food. The recorded length of the miraculous trip was 344 days.
Ether is the last in the royal line that began with one of the sons of Jared. From the time of the first king to the destruction of the Jaredites, there were only occasional periods of peace and prosperity. The times of peace were interrupted by intrigue over the throne, civil war, and the accession of wicked kings. The history of the Jaredites confirmed the fears of Jared and his brother that a monarchy would lead to evil.
The Book of Mormon claims that the Jaredites grew to become a civilization that exceeded two million people just before its destruction. They finally destroyed themselves about the time Lehi and the other refugees from Jerusalem arrived in America. A prophecy of Ether was fulfilled: the last Jaredite king, Coriantumr, lived to see both the total destruction of his entire house, the scattering of the remaining Jaredites, and the arrival of another people to inherit the land.The Book of Ether (/ˈiːθər/) is one of the books of the Book of Mormon. It describes the Jaredites, descendants of Jared and his companions, who were led by God to the Americas shortly after the confusion of tongues and the destruction of the Tower of Babel. Ether consists of fifteen chapters.
Jared and his people were among the many scattered peoples from the destruction of the Tower of Babel. The brother of Jared is described as "a large and mighty man ... highly favored of the Lord", and seems to have been the spiritual leader of the group. He was given a vision of the history of the world, and inscribed prophecies, which were "sealed up" until the Lord decides to reveal them. The Lord told the brother of Jared to build unpowered submarines, termed "barges" or "vessels", to cross the ocean to the promised land. The barges could circulate fresh air because of openings in the top and bottom of the vessel. The hole in the top could be "stopped up" when the waves crashed over the vessel to prevent scuttling. The hole in the bottom is assumed to have been constructed as a sort of "moon pool" with the lip above the waterline so it would not flood the vessel. This would also allow wave action and the buoying of the vessel to pump fresh air in and out of the vessel when the upper opening was uncapped.
Because the vessels could not sustain fire or windows for light, the brother of Jared went to a mountain and prayed for help. God touched several molten stones and made them shine. Because of the brother of Jared's great faith, he saw the finger of God. He then saw and spoke with Jehova. The people launched the vessels and traveled through great storms. After 344 days, they arrived at the Americas. Jared and his brother led the people to successfully establish a righteous nation.
The political aspect of the legend again came forward in the thirteenth century. In November 1219, Damietta was conquered by the crusaders. In the spring of 1221 the report was circulated among the victors that in the East, King David, either the son or nephew of the Presbyter, had placed himself at the head of three powerful armies, and was moving upon the Mohammedan countries. An Arabic prophecy foretold that when Easter fell on 3 April, the religion of Mohammed would be abolished. This occurred in 1222, and many expected that King David and his host would offer their support to the long-awaiting army of Frederick II. The enthusiasm that this announcement created in the camp at Damietta led to a premature outbreak of the Franks against Cairo, and the defeat of the army. The historical germ is easily discovered. King David is no other than the Mongolian conqueror Jenghiz Khan, who at this time with three legions pushed forward towards the West, and in a most sanguinary battle annihilated the power of Islam in Central Asia. He and many of his successors were favourable to the Christians, and averse to the Mohammedans; the Mongol Kingdom also surpassed all Asiatic principalities by its display; but the name of David given to the Eastern conqueror still remains unexplained.
Third stage
The horrible slaughter committed by the Mongols soon proved that they were no pious pilgrims bound for the Holy Sepulchre, still less were they Christians. After a short time the legend assumed another form. It said that the Mongolians were the wild hordes mentioned in the Presbyter's letter to Manuel. They had risen up against their own ruler, King David, murdering both him and his father. The "Speculum historiale" of Vincent of Beauvais says: "In the year of our Lord 1202, after murdering their ruler [David] the Tatars set about destroying the people". Certain historical facts form the basis of this remarkable report. Bar Hebraeus mentions that in 1006 the Mongolian tribe of the Keriats in Upper Asia had become Christians (Nestorians). According to the account of Rubruquis, the Franciscan, these Keriats were related to the Naymans, another Mongolian shepherd tribe, and paid tribute to their ruler Coirchan; they also were Nestorian Christians, and in that vicinity were considered the countrymen of Prester John. The prince of the Keriats, Unc-Khan, was in 1202 completely subject to the superior power of Jenghiz Khan, who meanwhile was on the friendliest terms with his family, thus giving the Keriats a certain amount of independence. Marco Polo speaks of Unc-Khan as "the great prince who is called Prester John, the whole world speaking of his great power".Móricz wrote a pamphlet entitled El Origen Americano de Pueblos Europeos ("The American origin of European peoples"), which consists of a series of pseudohistorical claims regarding Eurasia, the Americas, and pre-Columbian contact. These include: that the Sumerians, Hungarians, and Iberians originally came from the Americas; that the sparsely attested Puruhá language
was Hungarian; that the Basques belong to the same "racial and linguistic branch as the Huns"; and that various indigenous peoples of the Americans are Huns.
In the pamphlet, Móricz also claims that the Tsafiki languageOne claim by supporters of the 1421 theory is that the Apache speak Chinese. The "evidence" for this claim is the following bit of hearsay from the 1918 book History of Arizona by Thomas Edwin Farish:
From the fact that the Apache language was practically the same as that of the Tartar Chinese, color is given to the theory advanced by Bancroft in his “Native Races,” Volume 5, p. 33, et seq., that Western America was “originally peopled by the Chinese, or, at least, that the greater part of the new world civilization may be attributed to these people.”
Sherwin's methodology consists of taking an Algonquian word (or multiple cognates of the same word in different Algonquian languages) and finding an Old Norse or Norwegian word or group of words that resembles it, with the latter often having only a tenuous semantic connection to the former. Just look at the entry for the word skudakumootc:
Welsh Indians are a supposed tribe of Native Americans of Welsh origin. Several Native American groups have been identified as having Welsh origins, most prominently the Mandans of North Dakota. Welsh Indians are usually claimed to have descended from a colony founded by prince Madoc in 1170. Apart from tall tales, no evidence has ever been found for their existence.
According to legend, Madoc was the son of Owain Gwynedd (himself an actual historical figure), a great but belligerent Welsh king. After Owain's death Madoc's brothers fell out with each other and continuously warred for their father's succession. Weary of the bloodshed, Madoc decided to leave Wales and sailed west, where he reached an unknown land. He left 120 men as a colony and returned to Wales. There he gathered ten ships full of men, women and livestock and returned to his colony. Since then Madoc was never heard of again.
Apparently Madoc was a somewhat well-known figure in Medieval poetry, but most of the references to him surviving today date from after Christopher Columbus, though our earliest reference pre-dates Columbus by at least a decade.[notes 1] A more complete surviving record of Madoc's adventures dates from a history of Wales published by Humphrey Llwyd in 1559, supposedly based on ancient Welsh sources. In the 16th and 17th century Madoc's story was occasionally used by the British crown as a legitimation of its colonization of North America. Though the pope had awarded most of the Americas to Spain (apart from Brazil which went to Portugal) in the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas
,
the British claimed the Spanish claim was illegitimate because Madoc
rather than Columbus was the real discoverer of the Americas. Locations
identified as the site of Madoc's colony include most of the North
American East Coast, as well as the Gulf coast of Alabama, Mexico's Yucatán peninsula and the Bahamas.
From the 17th century onward an encounter with Welsh Indians became a common theme in stories about the Anglo-American conquest of North America. Most such stories follow a simple formula: a Welshman sets out to the hinterland and is taken prisoner by Native Americans. With his execution imminent, he says something (usually a prayer) in Welsh. His captors recognize his words as their own language and release him. Needless to say, any follow-up expeditions have failed to encounter any Welsh Indians.
Other "evidence" involves archaeological finds from the 1700s, including memorials written in Welsh or Caucasian remains wearing European armor. However, any alleged evidence that may have existed is no longer to be found. Huh.
The first mention of Welsh Indians dates from 1568; by the early 20th century it had become clear that no such people existed. Embarrassingly, in 1953 the Daughters of the American Revolution erected a plaque in Mobile Bay, Alabama commemorating Madoc's discovery and colonization of that site in 1170. The plaque has since been removed.
Metaxism (Greek: Μεταξισμός) is a totalitarian nationalist ideology associated with Greek dictator Ioannis Metaxas.[1] It called for the regeneration of the Greek nation and the establishment of a modern, culturally homogenous Greece. Metaxism disparaged liberalism, and held individual interests to be subordinate to those of the nation, seeking to mobilize the Greek people as a disciplined mass in service to the creation of a "new Greece."
Metaxas declared that his 4th of August Regime (1936–1941) represented a "Third Greek Civilization" which was committed to the creation of a culturally purified Greek nation based upon the militarist societies of ancient Macedonia and Sparta, which he held to constitute the "First Greek Civilization"; and the Orthodox Christian ethic of the Byzantine Empire, which he considered to represent the "Second Greek Civilization." The Metaxas regime asserted that true Greeks were ethnically Greek and Orthodox Christian, intending to deliberately exclude Albanians, Slavs, and Turks residing in Greece from Greek citizenship.High priest (Hebrew: כהן גדול kohen gadol; with definite article הַכֹּהֵן הַגָּדוֹל ha'kohen ha'gadol, the high priest; Aramaic kahana rabba)[1] was the title of the chief religious official of Judaism from the early post-Exilic times until the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE. Previously, in the Israelite religion including the time of the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, other terms were used to designate the leading priests; however, as long as a king was in place, the supreme ecclesiastical authority lay with him.[1] The official introduction of the term "high priest" went hand in hand with a greatly enhanced ritual and political significance bestowed upon the chief priest in the post-Exilic period, certainly from 411 BCE onward, after the religious transformations brought about by the Babylonian captivity and due to the lack of a Jewish king and kingdom.
The high priests belonged to the Jewish priestly families that trace their paternal line back to Aaron, the first high priest of Israel in the Hebrew Bible and elder brother of Moses, through Zadok, a leading priest at the time of David and Solomon. This tradition came to an end in the 2nd century BCE during the rule of the Hasmoneans, when the position was occupied by other priestly families unrelated to Zadok.